BUREAUCRATIC AND MARKET SOURCES OF EPISTEMIC AUTHORITY

: In International Relations (IR) scholarship, the epistemic communities’ framework has gained relevance for explaining the roles of experts in the context of transnational global governance. However, IR scholars have criticized the framework for descriptive reasoning. Th is paper aims to strengthen its explanatory power by following rules of a systematic literature review and by using Desmond’s conception of professionalism to further develop Cross’s model of epistemic community. Desmond introduced his concept of professionalism as a response to bureaucratic and market trends in scientifi c research and Cross developed her concept of professionalism as a comprehensive reconceptualization of Haas’s original model of an epistemic community. Th e results confi rm compatibility between the two concepts. Following the structure o f Cross’s model of professionalism, individual autonomy operationalizes selection and training, collective autonomy covers the face-to-face meetings, and the service provision operationalizes the common culture.


Introduction
Uncertainty during the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the subjectivity of research and accelerated a serious debate over the relevance of knowledge.Significant questions have arisen over the credibility of causal theories, hypotheses, the adequate data-collection procedure, data compatibility, confirmation bias, and interpretation of results. 1 At the national level, mistrust of the best scientific approaches to fighting COVID-19 was evident not only among the public but also in the scientific community.The Stanford Medical Center's and Hoover Institution's conflict over anti-COVID-19 strategies served as strong evidence of this debate. 2he dispute arose between an emeritus chief of neuroradiology at Stanford Medical Center and Scott Atlas, a senior fellow in health care policy at the Hoover Institution, who was appointed as a special advisor to President Donald Trump to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. 3Atlas proposed that herd immunity would be best achieved by easing the anti-COVID restrictions, whereas the Stanford physicians and researchers with expertise in epidemiology and health policy disagreed with his belief. 4The group accused Atlas of misinterpreting the science.Moreover, the faculty senate members discussed Atlas's compliance with the Stanford Code of Conduct and the American Medical Association's Code of Ethics.The conflict prompted concerns about how academic freedom within university principles should be applied.
A divided reaction in the scientific community also existed at the international level. 5In July 2020, a group of scientists published an open letter questioning the WHO's COVID-19 infection prevention and restriction guidance. 6Except in healthcare settings, the scientists doubted the evidence supporting airborne virus transmission.These developments at the national and international levels renewed scholars' interest about the role of knowledge in the policy process. 7In International Relations (IR) scholarship, the meso-level framework of epistemic communities, considering concepts from historical philosophy and sociology of science, has aimed at explaining the role of experts in the decision-making process for conditions of transnational global governance. 8Previous investigation into epistemic communities revealed both the benefits and disadvantages of technocratic experts formulating public policy, but the COVID-19 pandemic solidified the relevance in maintaining a degree of propositional and legislative say in determining governmental policy. 9However, backlash from the members within governmental office and non-state actors brought into question public trust in scientific knowledge and its intersection with public policy. 10ince Peter M. Haas and Emmanuel Adler defined interactions between experts and decision-makers in international politics as the research agenda for the epistemic community framework in 1992, we still know very little about what kinds of individuals and groups constitute epistemic communities. 11Epistemic communities resemble other meso-level frameworks in IR, such as policy networks and issue networks. 12Later studies applied the concept for empirical cases and tested its broader utility. 13Unfortunately, there is a lack of theoretical studies providing a cross-disciplinary dialogue for reconceptualizing the concept.Addressing the challenge, this paper pushes the boundaries of Cross's epistemic community concept, 14 based on professionalism derived from social constructivism in IR 15 and the sociology of professions 16 by enhancing it through Desmond's elements of professional activity. 17Whereas Cross emphasized the internal cohesion of an epistemic community and perceived it as a functional social mechanism coordinating the activities of individual members, Desmond clarified the role of an individual professional in science. 18He introduced a dominant perspective in OECD countries that treats science as a knowledge-based occupation.He highlighted the role of the individual professional and his or her discretion in explaining scientific misconduct.Following Desmond's study dealing with the problem of demarcating science from nonscience, 19 this paper assumes that the increased implementation of external control through the New Public Management (NPM) reforms helps one to recognize a professionalized epistemic community with greater ability to spread its beliefs among the other actors in international politics more clearly.
To fulfill this aim, this paper proceeds in four steps.First, the broader context of how transnational global governance shaped the research agenda of epistemic communities in IR, serving as the point of departure.The sec- ond step is to review the emergence and development of the original concept of epistemic communities introduced by Haas.The third step contextualizes Cross's and Desmond's conceptualizations of professionalism and specifies the parameters of the systematic literature method.And finally, the fourth step presents the results.The presentational logic corresponds to Desmond's model of professionalism based on NPM ideas.

Broader Context
In IR, the epistemic community concept has gained popularity in the context of globalization, where complex transnational relations and processes are present.Th e analytical work on transnational relations started during the late 1960s and early 1970s. 20In 1971, the journal International Organization highlighted the topic with a special issue edited by Keohane and Nye on "Transnational Relations and World Politics".Th e authors defi ned the concept as "interactions across state boundaries that are not controlled by the central foreign policy organs of governments." 21Th ese and other scholars started to challenge the state-centric view of world politics. 22urthermore, three other developments of the late 1980s and early 1990s led to a proliferation of studies on the cross-border activities of non-state actors in US and European research institutions.First, demand for understanding social-reality international politics laid the foundations for what would later be called constructivism or sociological institutionalism in IR. 23 Emphasis on the social and ideational rather than merely the material structure of international politics characterized the authors who followed the theoretical approach.They depicted reality as a set of subjective knowledge and material objects. 24Reality became meaningful for human action only through the structure of shared understandings. 25This way of institutionalizing facts highlighted the role of knowledge in shaping social reality. 26he end of the Cold War was the second development that impacted IR theorizing.It led to the decline of research interest in structuralist theories such as realism, neo-realism, and state-centered institutionalism, and renewed an appreciation of domestic politics. 27On the other hand, the end of the Cold War also underlined transnational relations. 28In addition, the post-Cold War period underlined the normative challenges of neo-realism and state-centered institutionalism in theorizing value conflict and cultural diversity. 29Scholarship emphasized globalization processes related to the expansion of innovations in communication technologies. 30The spread of new technologies fostered debate on the retreat of the state, 31 highlighted the emergence of non-state authority in the economy, 32 and enabled evaluation of the actorness of non-state entities in world affairs. 33This intellectual shift created research space for analyzing global governance, 34 which had become more complex. 35Therefore, the research considered non-state actors's roles in rulemaking, regulating social issues, and providing collective goods in cooperative arrangements with nation-states. 36he diverse forms of non-state actors's participation in international politics and research concentration on the social and ideational rather than the material structure of international politics facilitated the study of the conditions under which transnational networks shaped international affairs.Authors defined a transnational network as a non-formal internal structure that allows exchange relations with one another without any formal authority to set hierarchy or settle disputes. 37Its importance in international politics stemmed primarily from moral authority and the claim to authoritative knowledge, which it used for the emergence, creation, diffusion, and internalization of norms. 38herefore, it was thought that researchers should study epistemic communities in the broader context of transnational global governance, which underlines many non-state actors' and communities' relevance.These non- state actors and communities interact with the nation-state to shape transnational global governance. 39They participate in constructing the rules and norms within the international system and strengthening transnational global relations.Transnational global networks encompass a variety of actors, including advocacy networks sharing specific values and principled beliefs, 40 transnational coalitions coordinating sets of strategies to influence social change publicly, 41 transnational social movements engaging in joint collective action, 42 communities of practice that share patterns of action, 43 professional communities conferring competence and status for members, 44 multinational corporations, 45 and individuals. 46The actor networks are diverse and may not always be composed of epistemic communities exclusively. 47They may be competitors of epistemic communities and operate individually in international politics.

Development of the Concept
Th e epistemic community framework is rooted in historical philosophy of science.Fleck's ideas on the thought collective and thought style labeled a co- 39 Cross, "Rethinking," 139. 40 mmunity of persons. 48Th e community maintained intellectual interactions and adopted a particular style of group thinking.Foucault's interpretation of the ancient Greek philosophical term of "epistêmê" 49 " also inspired the research of epistemic communities in IR.Foucault used the notion of episteme to describe a historically and culturally determined set of articulations. 50He considered the defi nition of the parameters of relations between discursive practices that form knowledge as the major function of the articulations.In sociology, Holzner and Marx coined the term "epistemic community" 51 to describe knowledge-oriented work communities, where cultural standards and social arrangements were diff used in the process of knowledge production and application.Th omas Kuhn also dealt with how social ties within scientifi c communities created a shared paradigm. 52He defi ned a paradigm as an illustration of the models of research questions and processes for solving them. 53ohn G. Ruggie used episteme as the structural expression of mutual understandings. 54He merged Foucault's meaning of episteme and Kuhn's notion of the scientific community.He also clarified the meaning of the episteme in the context of collective response.Ruggie's research was also influenced by Eugene Skolnikoff's norm-creation function of international organizations and Ernst B. Haas's discussion of international regimes for the 48 53 Kuhn's paradigms and Foucault's epistemes are frequent cross-disciplinary concepts for analyzing dynamics of knowledge differing in scope.Whereas paradigm has a link to a particular scientific tradition, episteme includes beliefs and reflections that might not be treated as scientific facts.See Paulo Pirozelli, "The Grounds of Knowledge: A Comparison between Kuhn's Paradigms and Foucault's Epistemes," Kriterion: Revista de Filosofia 62, no.148 (2021): 283-84.Haas included sharing of beliefs, values and methodology among members of a community from the Kuhn's definition of paradigm and referring a prevalent way for explaining social reality from Foucault's episteme (Haas, "Introduction," 3, 26-27). 54John Gerard Ruggie, "International Responses to Technology: Concepts and Trends," International Organization 29, no. 3 (1975): 568-69.management of technological interdependence. 55The following referenced works resulted in the specification of conditions for the international institutionalization of epistemic communities, including bureaucratic positions, technocratic training, and shared scientific paradigms among members of a community. 56t the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, Peter M. Haas published several works emphasizing the role of epistemic communities in the creation of international environmental protection regimes, including his book Saving the Mediterranean: The Politics of International Cooperation, followed by a paper devoted to chlorofluorocarbon emissions and the depletion of the ozone layer. 57These studies highlighted making political decisions under conditions of uncertainty.Haas's research also underlined the need for advice from a knowledge-based transnational network sharing common views about cause-and-effect relationships and consensual knowledge.These conclusions opened new avenues of epistemic community research in the 1992 International Organization special issue dedicated to knowledge, power, and international policy coordination.In the 1992 International Organization "Introduction", the most cited piece in the history of the journal, Haas operationalized the concept in more detail than previous scholars. 58He defined a shared set of normative and principled beliefs, casual beliefs, notions of validity, and common policy enterprise as the criteria for recognizing an epistemic community.Uncertainty and complexity in international policy coordination stimulated demand for advice from epistemic communities. 59he advice helped to frame issues for collective policy negotiations. 55 While the authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge based on recognized expertise distinguished epistemic communities from other actors involved in policy negotiations, Haas, in contrast, highlighted the fact that policy choices resulted from the interactions of epistemic communities with other actors. 60The other actors may include interest groups promoting their self-interest and that of its members, 61 social movements focusing on social mobilization, 62 coalitions of bureaucratic actors composed of individuals in the service of bureaucratic organizations, 63 advocacy networks promoting principled ideas and norms, 64 or issue networks bringing ethical ideas into the international system. 65ince 1992, IR scholars have paid some attention to the concept.Most previous studies on epistemic communities remained narrow and focused only on empirical testing.The examination of single-case studies covered a broad spectrum of topics.Several of the testing studies focused on political negotiations at international and global levels in the European integration 60  process, 66 environmental governance, 67 and business economics. 68Apart from that, the existing studies also confirmed the epistemic communities's relevance at the national and local levels. 69

Th e Two Conceptions of Professionalism
Although the original concept of epistemic community is a cross-disciplinary product considering sociological perspective on knowledge and professions 70 , and although the concept has been empirically evaluated since 1992, later research has done less to develop the idea theoretically. 71Th erefore, this paper strengthens its explanatory power.Th e update is based on using Desmond's conception of professionalism in order to develop Cross's conception of professionalism.As far as Cross's criteria for recognizing an epistemic community, they resulted from a comprehensive reconceptualization of Haas's original model.Her theoretical position stemmed primarily from 66 Amy Verdun, "The Role of the Delors Committee in the Creation of EMU: An Epistemic Community?,"Journal of European Public Policy 6, no. 2 (1999)  (New York: Harcourt & World, 1936). 71 Dunlop, "Epistemic," 229-43; Cross, "Rethinking," 137-60.social constructivism in IR 72 and the sociology of professions. 73She defi ned an epistemic community as a functioning social mechanism coordinating its members' activities. 74Her conception emphasized professionalism as the crucial factor for determining an epistemic community's internal cohesion and implicated its potential to persuade other actors through a process of institutional learning. 75ugh Desmond introduced the second conception of professionalism. 76ust like Cross, his theoretical position was also derived from the sociology of professions. 77He also underlined internal cohesion and research methodology as the crucial variables for delimiting a scientific community. 78In contrast with Cross's conception, Desmond incorporated NPM ideas into his model. 79The NPM ideas included the bureaucratic 80 and market aspects 81 of scientific research imposing external control on scientific activity and provided a detailed delimitation of science as a professional occupation. 82urthermore, Desmond used concepts from the philosophy of science and sociology of professions perspectives for his analysis and final explanations.Contrary to Cross, he did not consider the concepts derived from the social constructivist approach in IR 83 So, Desmond's conception, emphasizing the professional aspect of scientific research, has the potential to broaden the scope of Cross's conception of epistemic community in IR.
A conceptualization of the ideal types of occupations generated problems (see Table 1).Some occupations claimed professional status but did not fulfill the criteria of the traditional model of professions. 84On the other hand, some occupations corresponded to the professions' traditional model and yet could not be considered professions. 85Moreover, the discussions of ethics in research concluded that research ethics should be understood according to the professional model followed by the NPM. 86The introduction of codes of conduct served as evidence of the shift toward the professionalization of scientific research according to the sociology of professions. 87odes of conduct established public responsibilities and granted a great deal of autonomy. 88So, if the professionals adhered to public responsibilities, they could set their standards and rules.The ethical standards and rules set the highest degree of professional moral merits, promoting self-regulation and public responsibility.1970s and the 1980s. 89The approach comprised a set of influential beliefs for implementing public sector reform. 90In this period, NPM research tackled declining public service standards. 91Therefore, the main topics dealt with the effects of social change on public administration, rational choice, and implementation of private sector management practices in the public sector. 92Christopher Hood wrote the most cited article dedicated to NPM, entitled "A Public Management for All Seasons?" 93 He considered NPM a consequence of four trends in public administration.The trends are summarized as follows: efforts to slow down or reverse public spending and staffing, emphasis on quasi-privatization and privatization, expansion of automatization via information technologies, and intensification of the international agenda focused on the exchange of ideas devoted to public management, policy design, and decision styles.
Ongoing debates evaluated the emergence and outcomes of NPM.Some authors admitted that NPM influenced the reform schema of public management systems in some countries and provided various reform implementations. 94Furthermore, NPM led to increased efficiency in some areas of health and education. 95On the other hand, others, such as Cordella and Iannacci and de Vries, considered the NPM research program obsolete. 96Even though NPM led to a more complex framework, the inability to 89  solve societal problems remained its major disadvantage. 97The roots of the limitations lay in NPM's emphasis on industrialization, professionalization, and social life technicalization.The authors marked the trends as typical for the private sector.In the public sphere, these tendencies eroded citizens' autonomous competencies to cope with their problems and weakened local communities' cohesion.
Regarding the criticism of NPM and the emergence of requirements to organize work tasks in complex and diverse networks, public managers and administrators demanded a new theoretical alternative. 98Consequently, researchers tried to overcome these new practical challenges with several innovations, but they have not yet resulted in a coherent approach.Additionally, there is no consensus in the literature about a single term for NPM reform, and the need to study NPM concept development has been expressed. 99Various terms were used to label the outputs of the following research, including new public governance, 100 public value management, 101 new public service, 102 whole of government, 103 and post-new public management. 104lthough the authors labeled the following research differently, they emphasized codes of conduct in the same way.Codes of conduct established position statements on essential values that underlie research, and defined the best research practices. 105However, except for discussions on the definition of misconduct and its consequences on trust in science and research funding, 106 there is little academic literature addressing how codes of conduct and policy documents should be written, which implies that the crucial questions about scientists's values and responsibilities are still not solved.According to Desmond, a historical perspective should provide a clue for the relevant demarcation of non-professional and professional status. 107In past decades, established professions in OECD countries have changed because of implementing NPM reforms. 108The reforms responded to the inefficiency of the traditional welfare-state model, including irrationalities in the cost benefits of public services.

Systematic Literature Review
Th is paper conducted a systematic literature review to develop Cross' conception further. 109Its core was the four-stage approach based on Charmaz' grounded theory, which combined two traditions: positivist and pragmatist. 110Th e use of Desmond's conception to further enrich the concept of the epistemic community marked the review's scope. 111  Cross, "Rethinking," 148-50; Desmond, "Professionalism," 1289-93.  in four steps.First, the years of the studies' publications (2013 and 2020) defi ned additional sampling criteria for determining the period 2013-2020 as the relevant time frame for the review. 112Second, following the scope of published papers by Cross and Desmond, the reviewed research fi elds were social constructivism in IR, the sociology of professions, the philosophy of science, and NPM. 113Th ird, the selection process of relevant texts occurred.Th e selection is based on the literature cited by Desmond for defi ning science as a professional occupation within the relevant time frame for review (2013-2020). 114he outputs included Freidson, Noordegraaf, and Carvalho and Correia. 115This set of literature on professionalism preserved terminological continuity.Apart from that, the additional web search enriched the already existing set of literature.This research utilized the Google Books and Google Scholar web domains as the primary search databases.Following Desmond's study, the search terms "individual autonomy," "collective autonomy," and "service ideal" formed the elements for recognizing and implementing external professional control through NPM reform. 116The search time range corresponded to the time frame of the selection process from 2013 to 2020.The reading of the titles, abstracts, and headings sorted the literature according to the elements of Desmond's model of professionalism.
Fourth, the analysis was carried out.It applied the grounded theory principles based on delineating categories to interpret meaning via coding. 117The coding proceeded in three steps.First, following the results of the literature sorting, the initial coding identified textual phrases and expressed them in the form of concepts, including professional status, 118 rational discretion, 119 knowledge and autonomy relation, 120 collaborative decisions, 121 managerial autonomy, 122 and professional-client relationship. 123econd, focused coding followed the open coding to examine the concepts more deeply. 124The examination clarified the interpretations of professional status, rational discretion, and professional-client relationship. 125hird, theoretical coding ended the coding process. 126It treated the concepts and clarified interpretations of existing theories as data and showed the general relationships between them.The theoretical coding integrated and structured its results deductively. 127That is, the concepts and the forms of interpretations proceeded from generalizations, including a professional, 128 an autonomous individual, professional competence, 129 collaborative decisions, 130 and professional-client relationship, 131 to particulars.Fourth, a comparative analysis followed the coding process to refine the concepts and categories. 132Fifth, this paper presented the final results.The presentational logic corresponded to Desmond's model.Thus, they were structured by the individual, collective autonomy, and service ideals.

Th e Results of the Literature Review
In the context of the sociology of professions and NPM, the term "professional" 133 encompasses personal qualities that ensure a work task is performed adequately and appropriately.A professional is an individual who earns a living from a knowledge-based activity.Knowledge is the crucial element for distinguishing professionals from other workers. 134Its linkage to theories and complex intellectual ideas improves its professional status and prestige. 135Professional status and prestige are derived from the relationship between occupational tasks and societal values, and dominate labor division in the relevant fi eld of work.
Eliot Freidson provides a consensual definition for the ideal type of professional occupation from the sociology of professions perspective. 136is definition is composed of five occupationally controlled elements.They cover the recognized body of knowledge and skills based on abstract concepts and theories, the division of labor, a controlled labor market requiring credentials for career mobility, a training program that produces those credentials, and an ideology that justifies transcendent values beyond economic gain.Desmond compresses these five elements into autonomy and service ideals. 137

Autonomy
Autonomy constitutes an essential element of achieving professional status and refers to being independent of external regulations or constraints. 138h erefore, an autonomous individual discerns rationally and maintains control over her or his actions. 139Th e discretions follow the scope of practice and arise from the need to turn broad goals into practical policy.Moreover, autonomy stands outside the balance and responsibility controlled by profe- 133 Sølvi Mausethagen and Jens-Christian Smeby, "Contemporary Education Policy and Teacher Professionalism," in The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism,  eds.Ferreira et al.,"Systematization," 90;Carvalho and Diogo,"Exploring," 26. 135Leicht, "Professionalization," 189. 136Freidson, Professionalism, 180. 137Desmond, "Professionalism," 1291. 138 Carvalho and Diogo,"Exploring," 26;Beyers and Wessels,"Informed," 169. 139 Anne Marie H. Bularzik, Susan Tullai-Mcguinness, and Christina Leibold Sieloff, "Nurse's Perceptions of Their Group Goal Attainment Capability and Professional Autonomy: A Pilot Study," Journal of Nursing Management 21, no. 3 (2013): 589; Evans, t Professional, 3.
ssionals.Th erefore, individuals must demonstrate and utilize knowledge to provide quality service, which also relates to innovative habits. 140he privilege of exercising rational discretions means that an autonomous individual decides how to use limited resources to complete a task and takes personal interest and consequences into consideration. 141It implies that no one above the professional must sanction or approve the course of action she or he has chosen to take. 142Thus, an individual professional strives to maintain her or his exclusive control over the selected action. 143xclusive control over actions implies competition over professional and societal power, legitimacy and jurisdiction of field expertise. 144This autonomy exists on both individual level and group levels.

Individual Autonomy
On an individual level, autonomy assumes the application of theoretical knowledge to empirical examples via individual discretion. 145Th e individual autonomy corresponds to Cross's fi rst variable for recognizing an epistemic community operating through selection and training. 146Selection, training, and promotion provide insight into a profession and largely determine its status. 147Gaining and promoting autonomy in a highly competitive process confers a high level of expertise.To do that, professionals must make decisions based on theories and complex intellectual ideas, skills, and attitudes. 148nly by demonstrating professional competence and ethics will they practice the profession independently. 149Th e high level of expertise represents their chance to discern independently.Discretion relates to a suitable strategy for selecting and using theories and ideas to complete the work. 150Th erefore, individual professionals may learn and use innovative habits. 151ven though individual autonomy depends on individual discretion, it does not imply absolute freedom.Indeed, a person must respect authoritative rules and instructions. 152So individual professionals rather give and obey commands themselves.Neither their own will nor their organization's justifies giving commands or exalting values beyond the reach of legitimate and professional activity. 153When the individual professional employs independent discretion, they usually follow historical tradition and previous professional experiences. 154Hence, the situations and demand from individual professionals to be more alert and conscious of the work task constantly challenges an individual's autonomy.Moreover, professionals must conduct self-evaluations and assessments to improve their own practices. 155Thus, the individual's autonomy can be enjoyed only when the primary organization limits its control over individual professionals and shows strong trust in them.

Collective Autonomy
On a group level, collective autonomy specifi es the relation between individual professionals and their community.Th e individual should make her or his individual discretion in accordance with decision a collective professional governing body on relevant tasks and activities. 156Th e collective autonomy covers Cross's second variable for recognizing an epistemic community. 157Collective autonomy is attributed to the nature of interaction among individuals.Face-to-face meetings most eff ectively reinforce shared professional norms, including protocol and procedure.Th e interaction lies in sharing knowledge and practical experiences with other individuals.Professionals obtain collective autonomy to make decisions related to designing their instructional strategies, developing new ideas and concepts based on others' ideas. 158ollective autonomy gives professionals the capacity to act on shared beliefs.Furthermore, it encourages these individuals to organize, create professional practices, and justify professional authority based on cooperation and collegiality. 159Collective autonomy also serves as an important communication process for preserving consistency among other professionals in using discretion independently. 160In addition, knowledge sharing on a group level strengthens professionals' autonomy. 161oreover, collective autonomy encompasses managerial autonomy. 162his implies the necessity collective autonomy in an organization where individual professionals may have to follow strict organizational rules and principles.However, the body of knowledge is strongly regulatory of conduct, being governed by the qualified membership.The elements of qualified membership allow effective occupational closure.Another key feature is that the principal providers of services own and control the organization delivering these services. 163The combination of individual and collective autonomy reinforces trust in individual professionals. 164

Service Ideal
According to Desmond's professionalism, service provision constitutes its second element. 165It should secure using benefi ts of autonomy on individual and collective levels for making professional decisions that follow universally valid values, not self-serving purposes of individual professionals or a collective professional governing body.Cross's epistemic community model supposes maintaining quality in service provision by epistemic communities via common culture.Th e common culture secures the epistemic community's cohesion.and helps to maintain quality in service provision by epistemic communities. 166A service is defi ned as a set of ideas and concepts representing an intangible transaction between individual professionals and clients. 167It enters an act via a deliberate choice between them and forms the professional-client relationship.Th e relationship is a personal and fi duciary one.As both must be involved in the transaction, it implies the of inseparability.An assumption for its existence is when the client entrusts an individual professional with a discretionary power over a vital interest.
An individual professional should protect the client's interest.Therefore, the client's interest typically relies on the professional's reputation, knowledge, and skills to help predict quality and make service choices. 168An asymmetry of power characterizes the relationship between an individual professional and a client. 169The reliance on individual professional discretionary choices has potential for client vulnerability, so service provision occurs under relatively anonymous conditions.This anonymity also supports the professional's expertise.Therefore, the intangible transaction is mutually beneficial based on reciprocity. 170he exchange of knowledge is not limited to the material dimension but includes a normative framework of solidarity and affiliation. 171It generates a special kind of reliance between two actors, in that it entails a moral orientation in which others are held accountable to act according to moral principles.The transaction is neither primordial nor forced to be permanent.The exchange of knowledge between client and professional is voluntary and potentially limited in time, and it does not need a formal or non-formal organization. 172

Conclusion
Th e concept of the epistemic community is a meso-level framework in IR for analyzing and interpreting the interactions between experts and decision- -makers.Since its introduction in 1992, scholars have tested it in various domains, mainly in the context of transnational global governance.Th e literature on epistemic communities has not dealt with the bureaucratic and market aspects of a knowledge-based activity.Th erefore, this paper focused on a novel path of investigating research integrity to strengthen the explanatory power of the latest comprehensive reconceptualization of the epistemic community framework in IR provided by Cross.Th e enrichment is based on using the Desmond's conception of professionalism.His position highlighted aspects of individual discretion in science and stemmed from prevalent perception in OECD countries treating science as a knowledge--based occupation.
The results of the systematic literature review confirmed Desmond's conception of a profession's compatibility with Cross's epistemic community framework.First, the analysis clarified the role of an individual earning a living from a knowledge-based activity.This finding served as the central point for classifying individuals in science as professionals and distinguishing them from other workers.Second, the autonomy and service ideal operationalized professional status achievement, so these elements underlined the professional nature of scientific research.On the individual level, autonomy gained relevance when applying abstract theoretical knowledge to discrete particular complex situations.
On the group level, collective autonomy gained relevance for cases when individual professionals share knowledge and practical experiences.In terms of collective professional autonomy, a governing knowledge-based body imposes strict organizational rules and principles on individual professionals.Second, the review incorporates the ideal service concept into scientific research.Service provision is associated with the professionalclient relationship.It implies that a professional should protect clients and prioritize moral principles instead of acting for monetary gain.
Also, the results have several implications for further research on epistemic communities in IR.Considering criteria of autonomy and service ideal for evaluating the nature of policy actors in international arenas might contribute to a better understanding of interactions between expertise and decision-making processes.Regarding the relevance of expert inputs for ameliorating risk and uncertainty in international politics, clarifying internal conditions for gaining professional autonomy in an epistemic community might precisely evaluate the dynamics of political negotiations in future studies. 173It would be interesting to consider access to information and technical competence in interpreting outputs that increase coercive effects in negotiations. 174The elucidation could include Bourdieusian approaches to ideal sources of professional authority in the context of global governance.The approach contextualizes professional authority as a dynamic process searching for recognition in a social space in which a professional evaluates her or his position to others. 175The conception of professional authority opens a window for evaluating the organizational and managerial aspects of research integrity for inquiry on codes of conduct and policy documents drawn by members of an epistemic community.They should pay particular attention to the specification of the link between individual and collective discretion.
Furthermore, researching the dilemma between discretion and career advancement provides perspective for capturing a factor of scientific negligence conducting to the decline of experts' legitimacy in international policy arenas. 176The level of collective autonomy indicates that future research should consider the organizational environment in various platforms gathering experts and international institutions as well. 177The investigation of the link between autonomy and service ideal, including its affinity with broader social values and principles, can help clarify understanding of public confidence in expertise in countries worldwide.At last, focusing on the compatibility of service ideals written in internal codes of conduct has the potential to clarify a coalition-building among epistemic communities with different expert backgrounds.
13Lars Carlsson, "Policy Science at an Impasse: A Matter of Conceptual Stretching?," 24 Emanuel Adler, "Cognitive Evolution: A Dynamic Approach for the Study of International Relations and Their Progress," in Progress in Postwar International Relations, eds.Emanuel Adler and Beverly Crawford (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 43-88.

Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995). 36 Claire A. Cutler, Virginia Haufler, and Tony Porter, Private Authority and International Affairs (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999); Renate Mayntz, "Common Goods and Governance," in Common Goods: Reinventing European and International Governance
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The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language (London: Routledge, 2002), 191. 51Burkart Holzner and John H. Marx, Knowledge Application: The Knowledge System in Society (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1979), 107-8.y 52 Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 182.
Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (Chicago: University of Chicago t Press, 1979), 39, 41. 49 Aristoteles and Terence Irwin, Nicomachean Ethics (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2000), 86. 50Michel Foucault, Eugene B. Skolnikoff, The International Imperatives of Technology: Technological Development and the International Political System (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1972), 12-13; Ernst B. Haas, "Is There a Hole in the Whole?Knowledge, Technology, Interdependence, and the Construction of International Regimes," 59Ibid., 5.

Table 1 :
Th e ideal types of occupationsThe main concepts of NPM originated from the new institutional economics and the theories of business-type managerialism in the late 88 Desmond, "Professionalism," 1288.